Scientific texts often follow the form of a monologue. The author introduces a problem, a discussion, and a possible solution to the problem. The language is strict and monotonous, the structure includes long compound sentences that deliver information in detail. Thus, the translator should pay close attention when transferring the grammatical structures of the original to the target language.

A translator should consider:

• Usage of abstract and linking verbs: appear, seem;
• Usage of verb-nominal phrases: conduct research, come to conclusion;
• Impersonal manner of speech and preference of passive voice over active voice: the research was carried out, the decision was made;
• Usage of the present tense: present simple is the most commonly used tense in academic writing;
• Usage of introductory phrases: what is usually considered excessive is advised to use in scientific materials. Words and phrases like “finally, first, second, in conclusion” are often present in academic writing.

The final and correct translation version should meet the following criteria:

• A separate term/phrase is appropriately translated within the context;
• Every term is compliant to a specific term system used in the original text (translator takes into account the chosen field of study);
• The similarities/differences of specific terms are accounted for based on source material.

But how to translate terminology in the first place? Translation experts use a variety of methods to ensure the terminology in the target language perfectly matches one in the source. Take a look at some of them:

• Equivalence. The translator scans the target language for a term, equivalent to the original. For example, “an atom” translates equivalently to “el átomo” in Spanish. This is the best way, but impossible in many cases;
• Concretization. The original term with a more broad meaning is replaced by a similar term with a more specific meaning. This method is used to clarify a term that might have several meanings in the source material. For example, “bird” in scientific translation can be replaced with the bird’s genus (like Columba livia can be a concretization for a pigeon);
• Generalization. The opposite of the previous method: the more narrow term is replaced by a more general term in a target language. For example, “Taraxacum” (Latin name for a genus of dandelion) in translation might be replaced with “flower” or “dandelion”.
• Transliteration. The original term is described in letters of the target language. The expert must explain the term, especially if it was never used in the target language before. For example, “bill” is transliterated from English to Japanese in hieroglyphs that are read “bi-ru”;
• Semantic calque (or loan translation). A term/phrase is borrowed from the source language word-for-word. For example, the word “translation” itself is a calque from Latin “translātiō”.
• Borrowing. In this method, the translator uses the word in the target text in the same form as it was in a source text. This technique is used when there’s no equivalent to the word in a target language or it’s a new word introduced by the author of the original document. For example, English borrowed the word “résumé” from French

These methods alone won’t allow just everyone to translate the scientific text, but in the hands of the professionals, they are a sharp weapon.